Nationalism is still a potent force in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Competing nationalisms

Nationalism was one of the French Revolution’s most enduring legacies, which went on to frame much of European political discourse for over a century. It remains a sadly relevant ideational force even today. The type of nationalism that arrived (and settled) in the Balkan region most successfully was a form of nationalism that focused on the ethnic group as a source of identity. This ethnic nationalism had a far greater impact politically and socially than it did in either the United Kingdom or the United States, and was further inspired by the concepts of (German) romanticism. This longingly sought for a utopia of beauty and untrammelled freedom, inspired by dramatic re-interpretations of the distant past. The nationalisms that developed in the Balkans sought the overthrow of the ancient, capricious, often cruel and now dying Ottoman Empire, and to establish ethnically-bound states. Problems emerged, however, when these newly-forming nations began claiming territory that they felt belonged to them.

This nationalism drove the overthrow of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, and served as the fuel for the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. It played a central role in both the First and Second World Wars in the Balkans, and following a brief communist interlude re-emerged in the 1990s to engineer the break-up of Yugoslavia. This resulted once again in genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. This nationalism was manifested particularly clearly in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and remains influential today.            

Contemporary nationalism in BiH is fuelled by the “Greater Serbia” and “Greater Croatia” nationalisms, which served as the key centrifugal forces that split up Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Both of these nationalisms had (re)emerged from the political penumbra (whence they had been banished by Tito’s socialist regime) and were seized upon by the Serbian and Croatian leaders, Slobodan Miloševič and Franjo Tudjman respectively. However, these two competing nationalisms faced a territorial and political obstacle in the BiH state, which at the time had a slight Muslim (Bosniak) majority, alongside Bosnian Croats and Serbs. These competing nationalisms drew Bosnian Serbs and Croats towards their kinsmen in Serbia and Croatia respectively, leaving Bosniaks to their fate, caught between these forces, which frequently manifested more hate towards them than they did towards each other. Much has been written elsewhere about what transpired when the war began. This is not covered here. It is safe to say that it all culminated in the Srebrenica genocide, which saw the genocide of 8,372 Bosniak men and boys.

Following the war, which was brought to some form of conclusion at Dayton, Ohio in 1995, BiH was reconstituted as a loose federal republic comprised of two entities, both at odds with each other. The political structures that started and led the war remained in place – and remain key drivers behind the continuing prominence of nationalism in BiH.

Reinforcing nationalism

Political leaders representing various ethnic groups exploit nationalistic sentiments to gain power and advance their interests. These leaders often promote exclusive narratives that emphasise the importance of ethnic identity and solidarity. Whilst Bosniak political leaders emphasise the continuity of BiH as a unified country, the leaders of Bosnia’s Serbs and Croats work continually to undermine and weaken it, driving it to the brink of collapse. Nationalism remains one of the key legitimising political ideas they use to maintain their power. Both this, and the constant concessions made to these nationalists by both the European Union and the US, have resulted in the complete absence of a strong central government that represents all ethnic groups equally. This has resulted in the crippling of the state, to the point where it cannot serve its citizens in any normal way. The dysfunctional state, in turn, serves to reinforce nationalism, as it causes great frustration amongst the populace.

Economic factors have also played a significant role in fuelling nationalism in BiH. The country’s transition from a socialist economy to a market-oriented one has resulted in economic disparities between different regions and communities, with almost 18 per cent of the population living under the poverty line. The lack of economic opportunities, particularly in rural areas, has led to increased discontent and frustration among certain ethnic groups. Nationalist rhetoric, in the form of Greater Serbia and Greater Croatia, often promises economic prosperity and a better future, attracting support from those feeling marginalised.

Perhaps the most potent source of nationalism, however, remains the lingering legacy of the war, which left a lasting impact on the population’s psyche. It reinforced ethnic identities and created deep-seated animosity between different ethnic groups. Memories of the war and the trauma associated with it have often been used by nationalist leaders to manipulate public opinion and propagate their agendas. Nationalist narratives highlight victimhood and persecution, perpetuate ethnic divisions and hinder reconciliation efforts. Serbian and Croatian nationalists, both inside and outside of politics, celebrate and simultaneously deny the crimes they committed against Bosniaks but also against each other. These denials serve to keep nationalism very much alive. In the last year alone, there were 90 incidents of denial by high-ranking Bosnian Serb, Serbian and Croatian politicians.

How to move forward?

The continued power of nationalist ideas and narratives in BiH has all but destroyed any social or political cohesion. Ethnic divisions have hindered the establishment of a unified political system and resulted in an all but permanent political deadlock. Nationalist rhetoric continues to fuel political conflicts, further deepening resentments and prejudices. Inter-ethnic violence and discrimination continue albeit at a low level (for the moment), inhibiting the restoration of trust and hindering progress towards a prosperous and inclusive society.

While nationalism may deliver short-term political gains, its long-term consequences have proven to be detrimental to stability and social cohesion. Overcoming nationalism requires the promotion of inclusive politics, economic development and the nurturing of a collective memory that fosters understanding and reconciliation among different ethnic groups. Only through such endeavours can BiH hope to move beyond the perils of nationalism and towards a more unified and prosperous future.

Hikmet Karčić is a genocide scholar at the University of Sarajevo. He is the author of Torture, Humiliate, Kill: Inside the Bosnian Serb Camp System (University of Michigan Press, 2022).

Bosnia and Herzegovina, nationalism, Republika Srpska, Western Balkans